![]() ![]() ![]() 1 In addition, 96,700 hip revisions and 268,200 knee revision procedures are projected to occur annually. By 2030, 572,000 total hip and 3.48 million total knee replacements are expected to occur in the United States each year. Most of these technologies have remained in the laboratory, although the clinical need is great. Tissue engineering approaches are well underway to regenerate the most complex of tissues. Scientists and the public have long dreamed of the bionic human, complete with artificial organs. Finally, different in vitro and in vivo models are discussed for translation of these technologies for clinical use. Enhanced biological response can be achieved through surface functionalization and the use of exogenous factors. Multidimensional physical properties of scaffolds, including three-dimensional macrostructure, pore design, and two-dimensional hierarchical surface roughness, allow tissue regeneration at different spatial and temporal scales. First, we provide an overview of methods and materials, with a focus on additive manufacturing and electrospinning. We review advancements in the surface and structural properties of typical polymeric, ceramic, and metallic scaffolds for orthopedic use. To avoid eliciting a foreign body response due to inclusion of allogeneic cells, advances in functional scaffold design harness the endogenous ability of the body to regenerate. Tissue engineering of bone and cartilage has progressed from simple to sophisticated materials with defined porosity, surface features, and the ability to deliver biological factors. ![]()
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